Life in Madinah of Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) Essay

The first significant event after the migration of Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was the construction of the mosque of the Prophet. It not only acted as a spiritual centre for worship, but also the political and military headquarters for the new state. It soon developed into an institute of learning where discussions and seminars were held. A social institution where Muslims learnt and practiced discipline, unity and brotherhood. The land on which the mosque was build was bought from two orphan brothers. The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) and many other prophets themselves worked hard to construct the mosque. This mosque was known as â€Å"Mosque of the Prophet† or Masjid-e-Nabawi. To this Quran says in Surah-At- Tawbah: â€Å"—, a mosque founded on righteousness from the first day is more worthy for you to stand in. Within it are men who love to purify themselves; and Allah loves those who purify themselves.† (9:108) Walls of the mosque were made of unbaked bricks. The roof was of mud and date palm leaves and the trunks of date palm trees were used for pillars. A large platform with a thatched roof, was built in one of the corners of the mosque. This was known as Suffah. Azan In order to call believers of Islam to mosques, the system of calling Azan was introduced. Hazrat Bilal (R.A) was appointed as the Muezzin. Arrangements for the inhabitants of Madinah People of Madinah belonged to two categories; Ansars (Madinites) and Muhajirin (Makkans). Even the richest emigrants were now poor as they had left their belongings in Makkah during the hijrat. The people who belonged to Madinah promised to help Muhajirs. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) established brotherhood between these two groups of Muslims. The Ansars happily agreed to help the Muhajirs and they took them to their homes, took care of them and shared all of their possessions with them. The Holy Quran mentions this in these words: â€Å"Those who and adopted exile, and fought for the faith, with their property and their persons, in the cause of Allah, as well as those  who gave (them) asylum and aid, these are (all) friends and protectors, one of another.† (8:72) The emigrants and their hosts were united into a bond of brotherhood, which proved, in practice, to be stronger than real brotherhood. Even the enmity between two tribes of Madinah, Aus and Khazraj was forgotten, as mentioned in the Holy Quran: â€Å"†¦ And remember with gratitude Allah’s favour on you; for ye were enemies and He joined your hearts in love, so that by His grace, ye became brethren†¦. (3:103) Treaty with the Jews: (Charter of Madinah) There were three main tribes of Jews: Banu Qainuqa, Banu Nazi and Banu Quraiza, settled in the suburbs of Madinah in their own strong fortresses. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) realised that the foundation of Islam would be very weak unless it was based upon the support of all the people living in Madinah. The situation call for a strong measure of co-ordination and adjustment, particularly as the Muslims were seriously threatened by the Quraish. Therefore, as soon as the Holy Prophet (PBUH) was settled in Madinah, he called together the Muslims and the Jewish tribes for consultation.

McJobs Are Bad for Kids Essay

I thought Amitai Etzioni’s article: The Fast-Food Factories: McJobs are Bad for Kids,† was both accurate and convincing. His assertion that fast food jobs, â€Å"impart few skills useful in later life,† and â€Å"skew the values of teenagers,† is correct. At first blush, these jobs seem idea for teaching young people responsibility and self-discipline. But, when examining issues the author mentions as negatives such as; hours worked, appropriate supervision, job training, opportunity for advancement, responsible behaviors, and affects on academics; fast food employment does appear to have a negative effect on teens. The number of hours worked usually equate to how much money you make. If hours worked is not tempered with other responsibilities, such as school activities and adequate rest, teenagers will suffer the negative effects. Teenagers working in fast food establishments often have hour’s restrictions of 40 hours per week. Because many fast food establishments are open late, and require cleanup and tally-up after hours, many teens can work very long shifts. It was not surprising to learn that teens working a thirty-hour week may do so in two to three days. The author references an informal high school yearbook survey wherein seniors acknowledged that their jobs interfered with their school work; a definite negative trade-off. As in any business, fast food establishments must have appropriate management of the processes to maintain consistency of the product and enforce safety practices. In many fast food establishments to be a supervisor you must be an adult, defined as eighteen years of age, and complete supervisory courses provided by the employer. Though teenagers were not officially supervisors, in some establishments, supervisory duties are many times assigned to and accomplished by them. And, sometimes, as the author states, there is not an adult on the premises. Each of the fast food establishments requires training, to some degree. Because many of the tasks are simple and repetitive, the vast majority of this training given is informal and on the job. This training can last from a few minutes to a few days. Additionally, the trainers, many times, are other teens. Further, the future benefit of the skills learned in these simple and repetitive tasks is questionable. Advancement in many fast food establishments does not exist or is very limited. Advancement usually means assignment to other work stations within the restaurant and little or no advance in pay or technical expertise. Designated career paths, leading to management positions are not the norm and were not available to the teens interviewed for this paper. Many people think that teens that work will benefit from learning to be responsible. They also think they will develop a strong work ethic which will benefit them throughout their working life. In actuality the benefits of responsible behavior and ethical work habit are seldom acquired. Punctuality though is considered important. Those teens that are chronically late are disciplined or dismissed. Responsibility seems to be limited to punctuality. Staying on task and using time wisely is not important to teens in the fast food industry. Employee theft is also very problematic. Money is sometimes stolen but the majority of theft involves teens stealing food for themselves and friends. Poor supervision, or no supervision, allows this unethical behavior to develop and become an established norm. Academics are not addressed so consequently are not important in the fast food industry. Long and/or late work hours that may interfere with schoolwork are not considered. Programs that monitor grades to ascertain if work is interfering with education were not found. Some teens say â€Å"they don’t care if you have homework, graduate or want to pursue further education† (According to Max Greenwood). Additionally, many teens working in fast food are high school dropouts. This further establishes the environment that doesn’t support doing your best, seeking advancement, and furthering your education. Prior to reading this article and doing research, I didn’t agree with Etzioni, that teenagers’ working fast food is bad. To validate Etzioni’s claims, I interviewed individuals who worked fast food as teens. These individuals reaffirmed that working fast food did not provide appropriate supervision, worked long hours, received little training, didn’t have appropriate supervision, and it affected academics negatively. Etzioni, Amitai. â€Å"Chapter 6: Arguing A Position.† The St. Martin’s Guide to Writing 9th Ed Short Edition I-cite. N.p.: Bedford/st Martins, 2010. 280-83. Print.

Uninsured patients in relation to nursing profession in America Essay

Uninsured patients in relation to nursing profession in America - Essay Example In this paper I examine the twin challenges of providing nursing profession for the uninsured and addressing the issues of the impact it has on the nursing profession. I focus particularly on the role of government intervention in the nursing profession both directly, through the provision of health insurance itself, and indirectly via the subsidization of private expenditures. My goal is to describe the basic structure of government involvement in private health insurance, as well as the Medicare and Medicaid programs, and to provide a guide to the issues surrounding these forms of nursing profession. Prices and Nursing profession in the Group Market: Just as the subsidized price for health insurance increased nursing profession initially, subsequent increases in cost would be expected to decrease it. Health care costs rose rapidly in the late 1980s and early 1990s and then leveled off. Rising premiums increase an employer's cost. In response the employer can eliminate nursing profe ssion or can pass along additional costs to employees, increasing their share of the premium. Cousinaeu (2002) uses the years from 1987 to 2001 to analyze the effect of costs on the provision and take-up of private health insurance benefits. Between 1987 and 1993 health care costs rose dramatically and the fraction of the population with employment-based nursing profession fell from 71 percent to 65 percent. Cousinaeu finds that this drop in nursing profession was not due to changes in the fraction of employers offering benefits, but rather to declines in take-up by eligible employees. Furthermore, he attributes the drop in take-up to the rising costs facing employees. Marquis and Long (2001) also find only small changes in the probability that a firm offers health insurance nursing profession to its workers in response to changes in price. Thus it appears that changes in nursing profession during this time period were due to choices made by employees and their valuation of the bene fit. However, more recent evidence suggests that employers are beginning to reduce nursing profession in response to new cost increases. Between 2000 and 2001 premiums for employment-based insurance increased by 11 percent, and they increased by another 12.7 percent from 2001 to 2002. Over this same two year period, the fraction of firms offering health insurance nursing profession fell from 67 to 62 percent (Kaiser, 2002a). As an alternative to dropping nursing profession or requiring larger employee contributions, the employer can reduce the generosity of the plan it offers. One trend that has received much attention in the press recently is the movement towards health insurance plans with very large deductibles (Himmelstein, 2002). In some cases these plans are linked to medical savings accounts that can be used to pay for services prior to meeting the annual deductible. While plans with high deductibles provide insurance against the risk of very large out-of-pocket expenses, individuals must pay for much of the routine care they receive. There is therefore concern that individuals may forego preventative care or needed treatments to save money. In response to these concerns, some of the high deductible plans do provide nursing profession for regular check-ups. A Proposed Change for the Non-group Market: The persistently high number of uninsured individuals and the cost of individually purchased policies have resulted in numerous proposals to modify the current system. These suggested changes have varied from large restructuring, such as moving towards a national health insurance program, to smaller changes in the tax treatment of medical costs. President Bush has recently proposed tax credits to help those without employment-related nursing profession

Effective Learning and Understanding of Each Learners Preferred Learn Assignment

Effective Learning and Understanding of Each Learners Preferred Learning Style - Assignment Example The third way of knowing is an ethical way of knowing includes the ethical framework of nursing since the rules have failed to provide for all moral choices in nursing practice. The fourth way of knowing is an aesthetic way of knowing which includes the personal knowledge in nursing like the immediate practical actions in a given situation (Mumford, 1995). According to Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, there are four scales which can be used to measure personality. The four preferences include Extraversion (E) or Introversion (I), Sensing (S) or Intuition (N), thinking (T) or feeling (F) and Judgment (J) or perception (P). According to the indicator, extroverts prefer more social interaction while introverts are thought-oriented. Sensing individuals pay more attention to what they learn from senses while intuition individuals make imaginations of the future (Mumford, 1995). Thinking personality involves people who like utilizing objective data and facts while feeling personality consider emotions before making a decision. Judging personality includes people who make firm decisions while perceiving personality include open, adaptable and flexible decision-makers (Billings & Halstead, 2012). To gain my self-understanding as a nursing learner, I have taken a learning-style inventory (http://www.personal.psu.edu/bxb11/LSI/LSI.htm). I believe this will help me develop my learning potential. Some of the questions included in the learning style inventory include my preference for visual aids, my memory on the previous lecture methods and explanations. The learning style inventory includes whether I prefer graphs, working with hands and making notes or whether I chew or snack during classes. Another important question is whether I feel comfortable handshaking any of my ability to work with jigsaw puzzles. I selected this learning style inventory since it includes some practical aspects of the nursing profession like  the use of diagrams and interpersonal skill.  

Cell Phones in China Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Cell Phones in China - Research Paper Example Many religions survive in China. Different religions that are preached In China are Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism, with the first three being major. Education system in china is divided into 3 categories basic education, higher education, and adult education. Education order implementation is that each child must have necessary education of 9 years. In 1900, China strictly lacked the technological progress. The past 10 years are the era of massive technological development in China and now China is among one of the most developed nations of the world. Chinese mobile phone industry has a high growth rate and during last year it supplied up to 50% of global production of mobile phones. In 1995 China started wireless telecommunication through GSM. In 2000 a fixed telecom company (China telecom) and 2 mobile phone companies (China Mobile and China Unicom) were established. Another major telecommunication company was established in China an year before the 3rd Gen eration was granted. Reference Brandt, L. Reflection on China’s late 19th and Early 20th Century, 1997 The mobile phone technology has boosted up Chinese economy due to great sales and purchases and it has also enabled china to have a stand in global market.

Case study(BMW Films) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Case study(BMW Films) - Essay Example BMW is very clear in fulfilling its consumer’s needs and expectations; therefore they installed the features the target audience demanded from their luxury cars. As said by McDowell the vice president for marketing of BMW, company has lots of products to offer and it yet possesses a very small market share; therefore they need to have a strong influential and creative marketing plan to advertise its campaign and maintain its share. Because of its wild unconventional and creative advertising campaigns the company has survived tough times. Through the introduction of new concepts in advertisements, BMW films have managed to maintain its market share successfully in business. Sales increased rapidly which encouraged the company to invest in this department. Market is very narrowly segmented for the luxury cars business. According to BMW’s marketing head BMW is master at understanding the psychographic demands of its consumers. The target audience of BMW is around 46 years old with an income around $150,000, majority males. These are people who eye for perfection and are willing to pay for the best. They enjoy the attitude that the car enriches their personalities with which makes them loyal to its products. They focus in serving their consumers only with specific demands and to approach them. It is important to have a proper consumer segmentation model because different consumers have different needs and expectations. The company have its primary focus on fulfiling the demands of the existing customers and further on creating awareness to expand the range of consumers. Because if the luxury products it offer there is a specific niche market who can only afford it therefore all the strategies are implemented keeping them in mind. (Durker) Peter Drucker believes that there are two basic function of a business; marketing and innovation. BMW have keenly followed the innovation path to make successful marketing plan. There are three parts of being

Comprehensive Policy Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Comprehensive Policy - Research Paper Example According to 1848 Supreme court ruling, some of the cruel and unusual punishment prohibited by this amendment include beheading, drawing, and burning alive among others. Despite the fact that most of these forms of punishment are no longer being practiced, the scope of protection of the inmates against inhuman treatment remains unchanged. Consequently, any punishment that violates the dignity of an inmate is prohibited by the constitution. Additionally, the pretrial detainees who are unable to afford bail have a constitutional right to be housed facilities that are humane and can not be treated or punished as guilty persons while they are still awaiting trials. On the other hand, the equal protection clause found in the 14th amendment of the constitution has also been used in numerous occasions to defend the rights of inmates. The clause particularly protects inmates against any form of unequal treatment on the basis of creed, race, and sex. This policy paper provided a comprehensive overview of the rights of inmates and the policy recommendations that can be used by correctional officers during the decision making processes in correctional facilities. The basic rights of inmates Despite their imprisonment or confinement, inmates often retain some rights. On of the basic rights of prisoners afforded by the constitution is the right to access fair court representation. Prisoners also retain their fundamental right of bodily integrity; therefore, Correctional officers must always ensure that inmates are not assaulted. For example, in 1962 a court ruling on the case of Robin v. California extended the provisions of the eighth amendment regarding the protection of inmates against cruel and unusual punishment to states (Rudovsky & Bronstein, 2008). Additionally, according to the current constitutional provisions, the only civil rights that inmates may lose are those that are taken away by the necessary implication or expressly by a constitutional act. Apart from pro tection against cruel and unusual punishment provided by the eighth amendment, federal laws also accord inmates a number of freedoms, such as the freedom of religion, speech and the right to equal protection under the federal and state laws with no regard to any discriminatory factors (Smith, 2000). Both the federal and state correctional facilities are only allowed to limit any of the basic rights of the prisoners if it is confirmed necessary for security of the correctional facility, crime prevention, and security as well as to protect the security of the inmate or others. Any limitation of the basic rights of inmates should be proportionate to the objectives that the correctional officers are seeking to achieve. Although the courts often rule in favor of correctional facilities and prison establishments involved in curtailing the civil rights of inmates, such rulings are generally intended to help in the maintenance of order and inmates retain their right to low but basic standar ds of living; they have a legal right to complain if they feel that their rights are being violated. In the Procunier v. Martinez (1974), a number of prisoners challenged the censorship of mails directed to inmates. The court ruled that any restriction on the freedom of speech of inmates should

Preperation of mentorship level 3 ( degree level) Essay

Preperation of mentorship level 3 ( degree level) - Essay Example The portfolio is not only used as evidence but also has effective learning tool. This pattern of learning is an approach rooted and based on the principles of experiential learning2 which is cyclical process of recording, reviewing and ultimately learning from events3. It is highly important that enough attention is provided to ensure the portfolio is not just a collection of event narratives but includes reflections on these events and the lessons learnt in the process. Any evidence of learning is captured in the portfolio as evidence that reflective learning has taken place. In compliance with the guidelines for the completion of the portfolio, we consider a few key assumptions for the purpose of this document. The attempt will be to integrate theory and practice to ensure the portfolio of learning will establish how the learning outcomes are achieved by this exercise of portfolio document While we are aware that the concept of Portfolios are not new, it is important to acknowledge the fact that their use in initial and continuing professional development in medicine is still in its infancy and premature stage. In this context, the attempt here has been to achieve the following aims and objectives: There is no focused attempt to address the particular constraints or resource issues that face practitioners in any educational initiative, as these are far too many and too complex for a document of this type and nature keeping in view the existing limitations. However, it does provide evidence of a range of ways in which opportunities have been created and developed by colleagues and other interested parties in establishing frameworks and mechanisms within which individual learning can be planned, appropriately documented and effectively assessed. Portfolios certainly have much to offer both learners and teachers as we move forward into the new world of revalidation, clinical

Fr Trd or Fir Trd Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Fr Trd or Fir Trd - Essay Example As the report declares CÐ FTÐ  spÐ µcifiÐ µs rulÐ µs for lÐ µngthy tÐ °riff phÐ °sÐ µ-out schÐ µdulÐ µs Ð °s wÐ µll Ð °s trÐ °nsitionÐ °l sÐ °fÐ µguÐ °rds Ð °nd tÐ °riff rÐ °tÐ µ quotÐ °s (TRQs) for sÐ µnsitivÐ µ goods. Ð lthough mÐ °ny goods would Ð °ttÐ °in immÐ µdiÐ °tÐ µ duty-frÐ µÃ µ trÐ µÃ °tmÐ µnt, othÐ µrs would hÐ °vÐ µ tÐ °riffs phÐ °sÐ µd out incrÐ µmÐ µntÐ °lly so thÐ °t duty-frÐ µÃ µ trÐ µÃ °tmÐ µnt is rÐ µÃ °chÐ µd in 5, 10, 15, or 20 yÐ µÃ °rs from thÐ µ timÐ µ thÐ µ Ð °grÐ µÃ µmÐ µnt tÐ °kÐ µs Ð µffÐ µct. Duty-frÐ µÃ µ trÐ µÃ °tmÐ µnt would bÐ µ dÐ µlÐ °yÐ µd for thÐ µ morÐ µ sÐ µnsitivÐ µ products, Ð °nd in somÐ µ cÐ °sÐ µs, thÐ µ tÐ °riff rÐ µductions would not bÐ µgin until 7 or 12 yÐ µÃ °rs into thÐ µ Ð °grÐ µÃ µmÐ µnt. This paper stresses that CÐ FTÐ  is controvÐ µrsiÐ °l Ð °nd fÐ °cÐ µs politicÐ °l uncÐ µrtÐ °inty. SupportÐ µrs hopÐ µ thÐ °t CÐ FTÐ  cÐ °n bÐ µ pÐ °rt of Ð ° policy foundÐ °tion supportivÐ µ of both improvÐ µd intrÐ °rÐ µgionÐ °l trÐ °dÐ µ Ð °nd long-tÐ µrm sociÐ °l, politicÐ °l, Ð °nd Ð µconomic dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt. ConcÐ µrns rÐ µmÐ °in, howÐ µvÐ µr, ovÐ µr thÐ µ nÐ µgÐ °tivÐ µ Ð µffÐ µcts on cÐ µrtÐ °in sÐ µctors Ð °nd Ð µmployÐ µÃ µs of thÐ µ U.S. Ð µconomy, Ð °nd thÐ °t Ð ° bÐ °lÐ °ncÐ µd outcomÐ µ mÐ °y bÐ µ difficult to Ð °chiÐ µvÐ µ if thÐ µ FTÐ  fÐ °ils to Ð °ccommodÐ °tÐ µ sufficiÐ µntly thÐ µ Ð °djustmÐ µnt costs Ð °lso fÐ °cing cÐ µrtÐ °in CÐ µntrÐ °l Ð mÐ µricÐ °n workÐ µrs, smÐ °ll fÐ °rmÐ µrs, Ð °nd othÐ µr groups. ThÐ µ history somÐ µ CÐ FTÐ  countriÐ µs hÐ °vÐ µ of poor lÐ °bor rights Ð µnforcÐ µmÐ µnt rÐ °isÐ µs quÐ µstions ovÐ µr whÐ µthÐ µr thÐ µ lÐ °bor provisions will Ð °dÐ µquÐ °tÐ µly promotÐ µ sociÐ °l dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt. For Ð °ll CÐ FTÐ  countriÐ µs, thÐ µ constÐ °ntly incrÐ µÃ °sing US forÐ µign dirÐ µct invÐ µstmÐ µnt Ð °nd Ð °ccÐ µss to US tÐ µchnology combinÐ µd with thÐ µ incrÐ µÃ °sÐ µd duty frÐ µÃ µ Ð °ccÐ µss to thÐ µ US mÐ °rkÐ µt rÐ µprÐ µsÐ µnt significÐ °nt bÐ µnÐ µfits.

The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn Essay Example for Free

The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn Essay Have you ever thought of running away for your own freedom? In Mark Twain’s The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn, the river isn’t mean for transportation anymore, the river means the whole lots for Huck and Jim, because it is a way for them to have freedom. The river also influenced in Mark Twain’s writing this book, through his childhood, he spent the most living in the river. River ends up symbolizing freedom for those from captivity to freedom in the state of Ohio. The restrictive society makes Jim and Huck run away for freedom, Jim wanted to get away from slavery, and Huck had to faked his death to get away from his father, so the river is the only route they can take if they want to be free in both in that present moment and their respective future. To Huck, the river represents a life beyond the rule of society, and that’s a life he could get used to. Racism had played a big role during the time period the book took place. If you were white you were a free man. If you were an African American you were doing hard labor. A quote from the book describes the color aspect and the whole African American versus white issue of freedom. ‘’Why, they said he couldn’t be sold till he had been in the state six months, and he hadn’t been there that long yet† (Twain, p. 27). So, most of the time in the book, Jim had to hid himself from the outside world, because he was still enslaved. For the conclusion i picked a quote by Eleanor Roosevelt, the quote related to Huck’s adventures. â€Å"With Great Freedom Comes With Great Responsibility. ’’ While on their way to freedom, Jim and Huck been through all kinds of dangerous situations. Huck’s survival knowledge was really important during his adventure, He is an intelligent guy, he used his survival knowledge to hide himself and Jim. Most of his ideas come from Tom Sawyer, Widow, and his father. As the adventures goes on, Huck learns that freedom comes with great responsibility, the responsibility to decide for yourself how to be a good, moral person.

Role Of Chromosome 21 In Alzheimers Disease Biology Essay

Role Of Chromosome 21 In Alzheimers Disease Biology Essay Down syndrome is a genetic disease that caused by trisomy of Human chromosome 21. Down syndrome is common chromosomal disorder of mental retardation in humans. It is caused by the three types of chromosomal abnormalities namely, free trisomy 21, translocation Down syndrome and mosaic Down syndrome. Most of the Down syndrome individuals experience Alzheimer-like neuropathology like dementia, neurofibrillary tangles and many others. Genes that are in Chromosome 21 which includes SOD-1, DSCR1, APP gene and S100B, are highly involved in the relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. Besides the genes involved, other factors like oxidative stress and hormone will be discussed in this review too. There are two different types of hypotheses associated with Down syndrome namely, developmental instability and gene-dosage effect. Introduction Down syndrome is a common chromosomal disorder of mental retardation in humans. It is caused by the trisomy of chromosome 21. Down syndrome is named after John Laugdon Down in 1866.There is three different types of chromosomal abnormalities namely, free trisomy 21, translocation Down syndrome and mosaic Down syndrome. Over 90% of the time, non disjunction and failure to separate the chromosome pairs during meiosis are the principal cause of Down syndrome. Down syndrome is named after John Laugdon Down in 1866. The first person that published the relationship between Alzheimers disease-type neuropathology to clinical dementia in adults with Down syndrome was Jervis in 1948 and the person to demonstrate this disorder is due to the trisomy of chromosome 21 was by Jerome Lejeune in 1959. The symptoms associated with Down syndrome are diminished muscle tone, congenital heart disease, small skull, slanting eyes and retarded growth and development. Individuals with Down syndrome usually hav e the tendency of developing neuropathological changes like Alzheimer disease. Down syndrome has an overall incidence of 1 in 1000 live births when the mother aged 30, increasing 9 in 1000 births when the mother is aged 40 (Hook et al., 1983). Alzheimer disease is a neurodegenerative disease which maybe is found in Down syndrome individuals. This disease is named after a neuropathologist, Alois Alzheimer in 1906. Down syndrome individuals experience the Alzheimer-like neuropathology by their mid-40s. In the beginning, Alzheimer disease affects parts of brain like memory and languages. But after a period of time, this disease will progress and cause problems in all aspects of our life. Alzheimer disease has 2 forms, familial and sporadic forms. Familial Alzheimer disease is a rare disease which is genetically acquired. There are mainly 3 types of lesions that are observed in Alzheimer disease. It is then caused by the mutations in several genes like APP which will lead to the over production of the amyloid-beta protein. The most common form of Alzheimer disease is sporadic form which contributes to 90% of Alzheimer disease cases. The first type is the neuritic plaques, extracellular deposits of fibrillar beta amyloid surrou nded by degenerating neuronal processes and terminals. The next type of lesions is intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles, primarily composed of abnormally hyperphospholated tau protein and lastly, it is vascular beta-amyloidosis associated with fibrillar amyloid deposition within the vascular wall. Over time, these pathological processes contribute to synaptic and neuronal loss, deterioration of neuronal networks, brain atrophy and dementia (Victor Ropper, 2001). Nowadays, people have longer life span and hence the Alzherimer disease become much more worrying for us as it will become a major public concern. There were 26.6 million of people that are suffering of the Alzheimer disease in 2006 and this number will continue to grow. It is then estimated to affect 1 in 85 people worldwide by the year of 2050. In fact, it was not until 1985 that research explicitly focused on aging related changes in health status and cognition of adults with intellectual disabilities, and in particular those with Down syndrome, began in earnest (Janicki et al, 1985). In Down syndrome, there are two different types of hypotheses associated namely, developmental instability and gene-dosage effect. The developmental instability hypothesis indicated that the correct balance of gene expression in the development is being disrupted. But this hypothesis is being questioned since other autosomal trisomy syndromes do not lead to the same clinical pattern (Shapiro et al,2001). In another case, the gene-dosage effect hypothesis, specific gene that is over expressed is responsible for the Down syndrome phenotypic abnormalities which indicated is trisomy of the Chromosome 21 (Delabar et al,1993). The Genes In chromosome 21, the most critical part that affects Down syndrome phenotype is the long arm(q) of chromosome 21. The critical region in chromosome 21 that is important to Alzheimer disease are amyloid precursor protein (APP) located at Chromosome 21q21.3 , superoxide dismutase gene (SOD-1) located at Chromosome 21q22.11, Beta-site APP-cleaving 2 enzyme (BACE2) located at Chromosome 21q22.3, carbonyl reductase (CBR) located at Chromosome 21q22.1 and cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) located at Chromosome 21q22.3 . The critical region in chromosome 21 that is important to Down syndrome are glycinamide formyl transferase (GART) located at Chromosome 21q22.1, SOD-1, Cu2+/Zn2+ superoxide dismutase, beta subunit of S100 calcium-binding protein (S100B) located at Chromosome 21q22.3, Down syndrome critical region gene 1 (DSCR1) located at 21q22.3 and Intersectin 1 (ITSN1). The Amyloid precursor protein (APP) APP gene is located on human chromosome 21 and codes for a transmembrane protein that is expressed in both neurons and astrocytes. This gene is important in the relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. Overexpression of APP gene will lead to the increase production of amyloid-beta protein which is the main protein component of senile plaque. The cause of the familial Alzheimer disease is by the mutation n the APP gene. The amyloid-beta protein is formed by the proteolytic cleavage of the large, type-1 integral membrane-spanning glycoprotein APP by secretases. It has two different pathways, the amyloidogenic pathway and the nonamyloidogenic pathway. The amyloidogenic pathway is beta-secretase cleaves APP to generate APPsB, a 100-kDa soluble NH2-terminal fragment and a 12-kDa membranebound carboxyl-terminal fragment. Hence, the nonamyloidogenic pathway is that cleaved within its amyloid-beta region (aminoacids 16-17), at the alpha-secretase cleavage site, to produce an N-terminal fragment, APPsa, and a C-terminal APP fragment of 83 amino acids (Kang et al,1987). In normal mechanism of the brain, there is stable distribution of beta-amyloid in the brain and this intracellular beta-amyloid is essentially in the entire life indicated that beta-amyloid within neurons represents a product of normal metabolism. The two most common species of beta-amyloid are AB40 and AB42. Beta-amyloid will start to accumulate during younger times and with increasing in age, the amount will progressively increase. During middle ages like 35 years, beta-amyloid associated neuropathology will accelerate tremendously. The soluble APP is the most toxic APP which can have neurotrophic activities and longer aggregating forms. The amyloid-beta protein at high concentration will lead to neurotoxic whereas at low concentration it can function as a neurotrophic factor. When amyloid-beta protein is oxidized, the solubility will decrease and hen will result in the accumulation of the intracellular microglial. This accumulation will increase the concentration of amyloid-beta protein and lead to more plaque formation. Amyloid-beta protein will also induce oxidative stress directly and activating microglia indirectly (Yankner et al, 1990). Although it has been a strong standing that amyloid-beta protein contributes to the Alzheimer disease but there is evidence that amyloid-beta protein is very useful in our body. Amyloid-beta protein provides an important role in both synapse and in synaptic structure-functional plasticity that underlie learning and memory (Koudinov et al, 2001). The autopsy studies in brains of older Down syndrome individuals showed that senile plaque and neurofibrillary tangles and in the brains and some indivuals show a much earlier onset. This maybe suggest that there is an apoptotic action happening and may result in the large amount of neuronal death in the brain. It has been studies to show that APP metabolism in involved in the peripheral tissues. Changes occurs in APP metabolism is noted in the platelets, lymphocytes and fibroblasts in both Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease individuals. This change in APP showed that there is two to three fold of increase plasma concentration in both amyloid-beta protein(1-40) and amyloid-beta protein(1-42) in Down syndrome individuals and also increase of mRNA of APP. The Beta-site APP-cleaving 2 enzyme (BACE2) BACE is a transmembrane aspartyl protease and has a second protein called BACE2 that is 55% identical to BACE.BACE2 has two active site motifs of aspartic protinases which are located at residues 93 to 96 of DTGS and residues 289 to 292 of DSGT. BACE2 has a minor cleavage site at the beta-site of APP and also a major cleavage in the beta-amyloid region that is close to the alpha-secretase site. BACE2 is said to contribute to the amyloid-beta protein production. Some authors investigate the expression of BACE2 in the frontal context of the Down syndrome patients and hence, the immunoreactivity of BACE2 in Down syndrome patients with Alzheimer disease and control is compared. The results show that in neurorofibrillary tangle-bearing neurons there is BACE2 but not in those Down syndrome patient without Alzheimer disease. So, this will give an indication that BACE2 contribute to the Alzheimer-type neuropathology of Down syndrome (Barbiero et al, 2002). In Alzheimer individual platelets, there is a significant amount of reduction in the BACE2 which suggest that this BACE2 cause increase Alzheimer neuropathology. The Down syndrome critical region gene 1 (DSCR1) and The Intersectin 1 (ITSN1) The DSCR1 gene is located at the human chromosome 21 and it encodes for the calcipressin 1 which inhibit calcineurin activity by interacting with calcineurin A. So, phosphorylation of calcipressin 1 will inhibit the activity of calcineurin and this will allow the control the half life of calcipressin by increasing its degradation. To protect the cells from getting damaged, negative feedback mechanism of DSCR1 gene should be activated. In brain, heart and skeletal muscle, the DSCR1 is highly expressed. It was shown that DSCR1 is over expressed in the individual brain of the Down syndrome fetuses and post mortem and for those Alzheimer disease individuals, they also showed DSCR1 mRNA levels to be two to three times higher than the control. Basically, overexpression of DSCR1 can affect two calcineurin-dependent pathways by blocking calcineurin activity. So, when there is an increase of DSCR1, it may disrupt endocytosis and the vesicle recycling because of the calcineurin-dependent dephosphin dephosphorylation. Next, the hyper The ITSN1gene is located in human chromosome 21 and it encodes for endocytic protein ITSN1. In this gene, there are two major mRNA transcripts which divided into 6kb and 11kb, short and long isoforms. These isoforms are expressed in the brain but in different cell types. It has been detected in western blotting that long form is neuronal specific while the short form is in glial cells and for those Down syndrome individual, there is an over expression of the long isoform in the brain. These genes are involved in the neruronal endocytosis in the pathology of the Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. In neuronal endocytosis, it is very important for the neuronal repair and survival as the secretory vesicles need to be reuptake during the synaptic transmission after any neuronal damage. The Minibrain-Kinase Gene The gene minibrain-kinase maybe associated with Down syndrome. This gene is encoded to the Down syndrome critical region 21q22.2. There has been studies that showed that the over expression will cause congnitive impairments with Down syndrome and increases in apoptotic cell death and reduction in neuronal differentiation which altered neuronal plasticity and intellectual disability observed in Down syndrome (Murakami et al, 2006). The Immune System Astrocytes also play an important role in old Down syndrome patients brain. Upon activation in the brain of the Down syndrome patient, it will express more of the S100B, an astrocyte-derived neurite growth-promoting factor. S100B is associated in dystrophic neurite formation and in plaque evolution and also in neurofibrillary tangle evolution in Alzheimer disease. S100B is secreted by astrocytes and increase the intraneuronal free calcium levels and stimulates the growth of neuronal processes. In the studies of S100B, it showed that the number of astrocytes expressing S100B in Down syndrome patient was about twice as that to the controls of all ages. Another way to test for the relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease is by the complement cascade, C1q. C1q accumulates in amyloid-beta protein deposits in neurons within Down syndrome brain. In this case, the increase level of C1q will suggest that it is responsible for the acceleration phase of Alzheimer disease pathogenesis in Down syndrome patient (Stoltzner et al, 2000). The Oxidative Stress Another factor that is involved in both Alzheimer disease and Down syndrome is oxidative stress. As we all know that oxygen is very important for life but the byproducts are very harmful. These byproducts include reactive oxygen species like superoxide and hydroxyl and hydrogen peroxide and peroxynitrite (Andersen et al.,2004). The amyloid precursor protein and the cytoplasmic enzyme Cu2+/Zn2+ superoxide dismutase (SOD-1) are responsible for reactive oxygen species homeostasis. SOD-1 is responsible for the first line of antioxidant defense by catalyzing the dismutation of O2à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢- to molecular oxygen (O2) and H2O2, which can be converted by catalase (CAT) and by (selenium-containing) glutathione peroxidase (GPX) to water. Since SOD-1 is located at chromosome 21, so the trisomy of chromosome 21 will lead to accumulation of hydrogen peroxide because of the imbalance in the ratio of SOD-1 to CAT and GPX. Hence, this will lead to the increase of neuronal cell death which also c ontributes to the progressive mental decline in both Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. In peripheral tissues, SOD-1 has 50% more in patients than normal in the immune system. Hence, it will disrupt the immune system to make the patients to be weaker (Benzi et al, 1997). The E2F-1 Gene The E2F-1 gene is located in human chromosome 20. It encodes a protein E2F-1 transcriptional factor E2F-1. This transcription factor plays major role in in the control of cell cycle, action of tumor suppressor proteins and DNA damage to apoptosis. The ETS2 Gene The ETS2 gene is located on human chromosome 21q22.2. This gene encodes for a protein Protein C-ets-2 which is a transcriptional factor of beta-APP gene. It will specifically bind to the beta-APP promoter and work with transcription factor AP1 (Wolvetang et al, 2003). The Oestrogen Hormone Oestrogen has a role of protecting neurons from the toxic effect by amyloid-beta , ameliorated the cerebral metabolism and also increase the level of acetylcholine in the basal forebrain and hippocampus. It also has the antioxidant effect which is very helpful towards Alzheimer disease. Other beneficial impacts include reduction of the lipid peroxidation, prevention intracellular peroxide accumulation and reduce the degradation of the neurons in the brain. So, it is said that estrogens reduce the occurrence of Alzheimer disease of Down syndrome woman. Woman patients with Down syndrome may have an earlier occurrence or more serve form of Alzheimer disease when these women has early onset of menopause compared to those late menopause women (Schupf et al., 2006). But those post-menopause women that receive estrogen replacement therapy may have a lower occurrence in having Alzheimer disease. The Apolopoprotein E Gene Another factor that attribute to the late onset of Alzheimer disease is Apolopoprotein E (APOE) gene. This gene is located on chromosome 19 and has 3 types of alleles (Corder et al., 1993). The allele that is responsible for Alzheimer disease is APOE ÃŽÂ µ4 allele. It is found that patients with Alzheimer disease has higher frequencies of the APOE ÃŽÂ µ4 allele compared with those without other APOE genotypes and have a earlier onset of Alzheimer disease (Corder et al., 1993). Another allele that has good contribution towards Alzheimers disease for adults with Down syndrome is APOE ÃŽÂ µ2. It is the least common allele but can reduce the risk of Alzheimers disease for adults with Down syndrome (Schupf et al,1996). Cholesterol is transported by high-density lipoproteins such as APOE, and these suggested of the hypothesis that the relationship between APOE and risk of Alzheimers disease may be linked to cholesterol metabolism. Statins or HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors are currently the most widely prescribed class of cholesterol lowering medication. In a number of studies, it has been shown that the use of statin does reduced the risk of the Alzheimers disease. So, for participants with a total cholesterol level of 200 mg/dL or more, the effect of statin significantly lower the risk of dementia compared to that of other participants with lower total cholesterol (Green, Jayakumar, Benke, Farrer, 2002). The Sortilin-related receptor-1 Gene On chromosome 11 (11q24.1), there is this gene called sortilin-related receptor-1 gene (SORL1). It is a 250-kDa membrane protein that is expressed in the neurons of the nervous system. The SORL1 gene has the role of intracellular trafficking between membrane and hence, interacting with amyloid precursor protein (APP) in endosomes and golgi. This gene function to get rid the excess beta amyloid protein. So, when there is little expression of this gene, it will cause to the increase of beta amyloid protein hence it will lead to the accumulation of beta amyloid protein. Since there is already a large amount of beta amyloid protein in the brains of the Down syndrome patients, then it will have problem to decrease the amount of beta amyloid protein so it will increase the risk of having Alzheimer disease. (Rogaeva et al, 2007) The Phorsphorylation Phosphorylation is a mechanism that controls the activity of enzymes and receptors by switching on the regulation of the cell function. Constant activation of the phosphorylation mechanism will increase the accumulation of the of neurofibrillary tangles, abnormal twisted protein filaments that form within affected neurons and are composed mainly of hyperphosphorylated tau protein (Hardy et al, 1991). So, the hyperphosphorylated tau protein in the brain of the transgenic mice with extra human minbrain-kinase gene also give us the indication of the overexpression of minibrain-kinase could contribute to the early onset of Alzheimers disease associated with Down syndrome ( Wegiel et al, 2008). The Age There have been studies that suggest that overall dementia risk increases beginning in the late 40s or early 50s and even some twenty years earlier than it does within the general population. However, there is still some individuals vary on the onset age. A small minority of adults with Down syndrome begin to experience substantial declines in cognition before age 50, yet another minority is able to mature well into their late 60s or early 70s without experiencing signs or symptoms of Alzheimers disease (Schupf, 2002). There are studies on the different ages of mothers who give birth to their children to have risk of having dementia. The results showed a four-fold increase in risk of dementia among mothers who gave birth to their children with Down syndrome less than 35 years of age compared with mothers who were older than 35 years when their child with Down syndrome was born or compared with mothers of children with other intellectual disabilities (Schupf et al., 1994). The Biomarkers Biomarkers are used to monitor diseases progression so it is very useful in quantifying the effects of any available treatment regimen. Because biomarkers are strongly associated with disease risk, detection of early changes in biomarker levels provides an opportunity for early intervention to delay or prevent disease onset (Lesko Atkinson, 2001). To date, validated biomarkers for Alzheimers disease in adults with Down syndrome have yet to be discovered. However, there are some biomarkers that have been investigated. These include measures of the quantity and type of beta amyloid protein found in blood plasma and telomere size in metaphase and interphase preparations as well as on individual chromosomes (Schupf, Patel et al., 2001). There is a close relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease mainly cause by the overexpression of the APP gene and lead to the over production of the protein, amyloid-beta protein(1-40/42), the major contribution to Alzheimer disease pathogenesis in Down syndrome patient. It is reported in both cross-sectional and prospective analyses that beta-amyloid 1-42 levels increased in demented adults with Down syndrome but not beta amyloid 1-40 levels. For people who are nondemented but with high plasma beta-amyloid 1-42 levels were over two times as likely to develop Alzheimers disease as those with lower levels (Schupf, Patel et al., 2001). Telomeres are DNA sequences that located at the end of the chromosome which is a series of repeats of the TTAGGG nucleotide sequence. These DNA sequences undergo shortening with each cell division, serving as markers of a cells replicative history and an indicator of cellular aging. Using quantitative telomere protein nucleic acid fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) analyses of metaphase and interphase preparations from age matched pairs of participants with Down syndrome with and without dementia, there are four observations being observed. The first observation is there are shorter telomeres in individuals with dementia. Next, the individual chromosomes 1 and 21 could be used alone and/or in combination to detect telomere shortening. The third observation is that the cells from individuals with dementia or MCI had reduced numbers of telomere signals when analyzed using a PNA telomere probe, and lastly the shorter telomeres in individuals with MCI (Jenkins, Velinov, Ye, Gu, Li et al., 2006). The Conclusion In conclusion, Down syndrome showed that it has a relationship with the pathology of Alzheimer disease. Triplication of chromosome 21that causes over expression of the amyloid-beta protein is the major cause towards the pathology of Alzheimer disease. Not only so, some other sub factors also contribute to it. After understanding the various causes that resulted in Down syndrome patients to have Alzheimer disease, it will be easier for us to invent more ways to treat all these symptoms and hence it will definitely benefit a lot of people that are associated with these diseases.